Philippine Tamaraw Habitat And Population Baco National Park

The tamaraw (tamarao, tamarau, timarau) is found only in Mindoro Island, south of Manila. It closely resembles the highland Bubalus anoa depressicornis and the lowland Bubalus anoa quarlesi of Indonesia. Maybe this explains why the tamaraw is previously called Bubalus arnee mindorensis and Anoa mindorensis. Tamaraws are fierce, nocturnal and wary animals. Most of the time, they are observed occurring individually or found in small groups. In contrast with other animals, tamaraws conceal their calves rather than being with them constantly in the open. When provoked, they bring their heads down and shake them laterally. There are no records on the domestication of tamaraws but some claim that they could be trained into valuable domestic animals. However, their diminutive size may not be ideal for farm tillage.

Tamaraws are not choosy with their diet. In fact, its diet consists mainly of new growth of Saccharum spontaneoum, Imperata cylindrica or "cogon" grass and even bamboo shoots that are quite abundant in the area. Just like the carabao, the tamaraw requires adequate supply of water for drinking and wallowing so that during summer they were observed to travel to lower areas in search of water. With regards to wallowing behavior Momongan et al., (1996) reported that tamaraws wallow more during the day than at night and during rainy season compared to the dry season. Their observations were based on tamaraws in confinement.

Philippine Tamaraw

Physical Description of Tamaraw
The tamaraw closely resembles the Philippine swamp buffalo or carabao (Bubalus bubalis) in all aspects except that it is much smaller physically. It measures only a meter tall at the shoulder and weighs roughly 300 kg. Because of this, the tamaraw is also known as "miniature carabao" or "dwarf carabao". A striking feature of tamaraws is their short massive horns, which are triangular on cross section and curve straight caudally forming a "V", whereas in carabaos the horns are directed laterally and caudally forming a "C" (Walker et al. 1975). The haircoat of adult tamaraw is dark brown to grayish black in both sexes.

Newly born calves, however, are reddish brown in color but it changes to adult color when the animal reaches 5 years of age (Kuehn, 1976). Change in haircoat color and shape of the horns could be used in the estimation of the age of tamaraws (Kuehn, 1986). Tamaraws have short and stocky legs, more hairs in the body and short external ears. The skeletal system of the tamaraw has already been adequately studied (Sumulong, 1931; Maala and Momongan, 1993). The other body systems have yet to be described.

Habitat
Tamaraws used to roam in open pasture, dense bamboo vegetation, marshy river valleys and upland forests in Mindoro Island but because of pressures from hunting and shrinking habitat, the animals defensively retreated to forested areas (Kuehn, 1986). Cox and Woodford (1990) described the physical features and vegetation prevailing in Mt. Iglit-Baco National Park, one of the tamaraw conservation areas. The Mt. Iglit-Baco National Park is a 75,500 ha area located in a mountainous terrain in the central region of Mindoro. The vegetation of the western part of the park is dominated by botanical species such as Themedia triandra, Saccharum spontaneoum and Imperata cylindrica. There are also small areas with mixed bamboo and secondary forest growths. The vegetation along rivers is dense and this provides good pasture and cover to the tamaraws. The eastern side of the park that receives adequate rainfall throughout the year favors the growth of tropical rainforest.

Philippine Tamaraw

Tamaraw Population
The tamaraw is listed in Appendix I of CITES which means that the population of this animal has reached an alarmingly low level; thus, poaching and trade of tamaraws are strictly prohibited. It is one of the Philippine mammalian species facing extinction unless the causal factors are eliminated. Harrisson (1969) reported that the population of tamaraw dropped from a high of 10,000 in 1900 to just 100 heads in 1969. Lustria and Callo (1992) reported that there are still about 133 tamaraws in the wild.

DENR claimed that the population of the tamaraw has increased to 300. As to the sharp decline in the population of tamaraw from 1900 to 1949, this was attributed to the outbreak of rinderpest in the Philippines in 1930. Rinderpest, which was introduced into Africa 100 years ago, was responsible for the eradication of millions of wilderbeests, hartebeests and others in that continent. Among the threats to the remaining tamaraw population, include the continuous destruction of their habitat by human settlers in the tamaraw reservation areas.

One such activity is cattle ranching near the Mangyan Heritage Park, which has resulted in the destruction in large proportion of the tamaraw's remaining habitat. Cox and Woodford (1990) have reported that about 14 pasture permits (the number could have easily doubled now) covering approximately 6,616 ha of the Mangyan Heritage Park have been issued by the Philippine government for commercial cattle ranching. Burning, a common practice by cattle ranchers especially during summer resulted in the appearance of less suitable and palatable botanical growth such as Imperata cylindrica.

One cannot also discount the possibility of diseases and parasites being introduced into the area by cattle ranching. In fact, gastro-intestinal tract parasites such as strongyles, fasciola, amphistomes and trichuris sp. normally present in cattle have already been reported in captive tamaraws (Anunciado et al., 1996). Even external parasites such as Hematopinus tuberculatus (louse), Boophilus microplus (tick), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (tick) and Amblyoma sp. (tick) have likewise been observed in these animals (Masangkay et al., 1996). Two tamaraws in their report were seropositive to Leptospira sp. and one animal reacted positively to bluetongue virus and leptospira.

Calamian Deer, Calamian Hog Deer, Philippine Deer In Habitat

Calamian Deer, Calamian Hog Deer, Philippine Deer-Cervus porcinus calamianensis, Axis calamianensis

The Calamian deer is endemic in Busuanga, Calauit and Culion (group of islands at the northern tip of Palawan) islands. It is known locally as usa. Since Calamian deers are listed in Appendix I of CITES, their trade is subject to strict regulation. The Calamian deer is a beautiful animal, which is tawny brown in the head, lateral side of the neck and on the ventral side of the body. Its tail is characteristically short with white buffs of hair present on the ventral side of the tip. A 70-80 cm tall adult Calamian deer weighs 30-35 kg while a newborn weighs about 1 kg. Only male Calamian deers have antlers. Calamian deers are largely threatened by shrinking habitat and illegal hunting and collection. Rural folks fancy the meat of Calamian deer resulting in their over hunting. In 1976, a Presidential Proclamation was signed by then President Marcos establishing the Calauit Island Game Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary, which were thought to protect the wildlife species in this island.

Calamian Deer Feamale

However, it turned out that the sanctuary was not intended to provide haven to the native animals there but instead to accommodate the African wildlife species donated by the Kenyan government to Marcos. Contrary to the belief that the introduction of alien species of animals into a certain place can have long term negative effects on native animals(Janetos, 1997), the Calamian deers and other wildlife species survived despite the presence of the African species. In fact, the population of the Calamian deer increased dramatically from 35 in 1977 to about 550 in 1991 (Panol, F. W., 1986).

Other Calamian deer conservation measures included the international cooperative breeding program established by an agreement between DENR and the Zoological Society of San Diego (Oliver, 1996). The Zoological Society of San Diego provided financial support to the project. The Calauit Island Game Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary is threatened by the residents who have returned to the Calauit Island to reclaim their lands when Marcos was toppled from power in 1987.

Calamian Deer Male

These people were displaced from their lands when the wildlife sanctuary was established in 1976. When they returned to the island they brought with them animals, which may serve as reservoir of infectious diseases that endanger not only the Calamian deers in the area but also other wildlife species. It is surprising to note that not much basic information about the Calamian deers is available in the literature.

For example the hematology, temperature and respiratory and pulse rates important in disease diagnosis are not yet established in this species. Studies along these lines should therefore be encouraged. The skull (Maala et al., 1990) and vertebral column (Maala et al., 1992) of the Calamian deer have been described. Some external and gastro-intestinal parasites such as Damalinia sp., Strongyloides sp., Oesophagostomum sp., Bunostomum sp. and Monieza sp. have been identified in Calamian deers.

Visayan Spotted Deer and Visayan Deer Endangered Species Philippine

Visayan Spotted Deer-Visayan Deer-Philippine spotted deer-Philippine brown deer -Cervus marianus and Calamian hog deer

There are three species of Philippine deer: Visayan spotted deer, Calamian hog deer and Philippine brown deer (Cervus marianus). Only the Visayan spotted deer and the Calamian hog deer are presently threatened. Few heads of Visayan spotted deers are still found in the remaining forests of Negros and Panay islands. They were previously reported in Cebu, Guimaras and Masbate Islands but excessive hunting and deforestation lead to their extinction in these places. The Visayan spotted deer is a small, attractive animal measuring about 80 cm tall at the shoulder. Their characteristic white spots remain throughout their life.

Visayan Spotted Deer

 The Visayan spotted deers are the most endangered deer in the world. They are listed in the Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), which means that trade of Visayan spotted deer is strictly regulated by law. It is believed that there only about 200 heads of Visayan spotted deer in the wild today. It is seriously threatened with extinction unless illegal hunting and rampant degradation of their habitat are stopped. Conservation measures that have been adopted included the International Philippine Spotted Deer Conservation Program a joint venture between the Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and the French Parc Zoologique et Botanique De La Ville De Mulhouse (PZBM) (Oliver, 1996). There were two components of the program: establishment of a new national park in Panay and the setting up of captive breeding and rescue centers.

The Philippine Wildlife Loan Agreement (PLWA) signed in 1987 by DENR and Mulhouse Zoo implemented these. Under this agreement West Berlin Zoological Society would provide financial assistance for faunal survey and preliminary management plan for the proposed Panay Mountains National Park. In 1990, the captive breeding component of the Philippine Spotted Deer Conservation Project was realized with the launching of the Philippine Spotted Deer Captive Program. Mulhouse Zoo and the Zoological Society of San Diego funded the project. Two breeding and rescue centers were initially established, one in Bitu Farm, Iloilo specifically for spotted deers of Panay origin and the other one in Siliman University, Negros Occidental for spotted deers of Negros origin. A third breeding center was later on put up in Bacolod, Negros Occidental.

Philippine brown deer

The ultimate aim of the breeding centers was to establish a "world herd" of Visayan spotted deers. The initial population inthese centers was composed of Visayan spotted deers donated by private persons who keep these animals as pets and also those caught from the wild. In 1995, DENR and Melbourne Zoo signed an agreement to establish a Philippine spotted deer Conservation Center for Panay Island population of the deer. This agreement was enlarged in 1998 to include the White Oak Conservation Center in Florida. Under this agreement, Melbourne Zoo, which provides financial support to the program, will receive a group of Philippine spotted deer in 2000 to start a regional Australasian zoo program. Incidentally, the Negros
Forest and Ecological Foundation, Inc. (NFEFI) reported the birth of the first captive bred spotted deer
fawn on November 20, 1996 at its Conservation Center in Bacolod. Research on basic nutritional
requirements and reproductive physiology of the Philippine spotted deer should be encouraged to complement various conservation measures.

Blood values, blood clotting time, respiratory rate, pulse rate and temperature important in disease diagnosis should be established in this species. Maala and Saguibo (1997) who examined the cuticular patterns of the hairs of Calamian deer, Visayan spotted deer and mouse deer by means of scanning electron microscopy claimed that it is possible to distinguish the Visayan spotted deer from the Calamian deer through the cuticular patterns of their hairs.

Flying Foxes and Golden Crowned Flying Fox Habitat In Philippines

Flying foxes or fruit bats are forest dwellers, which subsist mainly on forest fruits. They are known locally by various names such as paniki, kabag and bayakan. Eight species of large flying foxes have been documented in the Philippines. Of these, the Golden-crowned flying fox (Acedoron jubatus) and the Philippine tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene rabori) are considered endangered, and the Negros naked-backed fruit bat (Dobsonia chapmani) extinct. The Acedoron jubatus is the largest bat in the world weighing almost 1.1 kg (Heaney and Heideman, 1987). Deforestation and extensive hunting and collection have largely depleted their population. In the late 1800s and early 1900s one readily encounters colonies of Golden-crowned flying fox numbering 100,000 individuals per colony but nowadays bat colonies of that size are hard to find. Colony size has dwindled to 5,000 bats per colony.

Flying Foxes

Fruit bats are usually hunted for food and as pets. Because of prevailing poverty in rural areas exotic food such as bat meats are cheap source of animal protein in the diet. Fruit bats are also favorite finger foods or pulutan among rural folks during drinking sessions. Selling fruit bats is also a source of additional income for the people. In some parts of the country, skinned or live fruit bats are sold openly in public markets. Even in other countries such as the Pacific Islands, fruit bats are considered a delicacy.

For example the Chammoro people of Marianas Islands consider fruit bat the most important of the local delicacies and is always served during special occasions (Payne, 1984). There is also a demand for bats as sources of ingredients of traditional medicine and aphrodisiacs. According to Morgan (2000), folk medicines such as the traditional Chinese medicine are endangering the survival of a growing number of wild animals
and plants. The traditional Chinese medicine alone has been reported to be worth $ 6 B to $ 20 B. Derivatives of wildlife species are not only used in traditional medicine but are also used as raw ingredients in the preparation of modern medicine.

Flying Foxes

The extinction of the Negros naked-backed fruit bat has been blamed to guano mining, hunting and forest destruction. (Heaney, 1997). The relationship between fruit bats and forest is a symbiotic one that is they protect each other. Bats are economically beneficial animals in pollination of fruit trees, dispersal of seeds of fruit and forest trees, and as a source of guano fertilizer. As seed dispersers, Tuttle (1983) cited a recent West African study, which showed that bats are more effective seed dispersers than birds. A more effective conservation measures could be implemented if basic information such as reproductive physiology and health management aspects of this species are understood. However, there are only few studies conducted on Philippine bats.

These included the work by Guico and Maala (1994) on the histological and histochemical description of the fundic gland region of the stomach of insectivorous Hipposideros diadema bat and frugivorous Rousettus
amplexicaudatus bat. In Japan, Yamada et al. (1988) reported the presence of cholycystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide, motilin, neurotensin and bovine pancreatic polypeptide immunoreactive cells in the
stomach of two species of insectivorous vespertilinid bats. In a study on five North and Central American bats, Rouk and Glass (1970) reported that the stomach of T. brasiliensis, N. velifer and A. pallidus
do not differ histologically from each other. They observed however that there are only a few chief cells in the stomach of L. sanborni.

Bison Animal Conservation and Habitat In America Africa Asia

The story of the North American Bison (Bison bison) is mysterious and tragic. Once, large herds supported the native people of the plains and nourished the first explorers and settlers. But by 1875,
millions of Bison had diminished to a few hundred, mostly in captivity. Often wrongly called buffalo, the Bison is British Columbia’s largest land animal, and one of the rarest. Although the total number of Bison in North America has increased and the species is not at risk today, there are few wild herds left, and we know almost nothing about the wild Bison that originally roamed the great plains.

Bison originated in Asia and spread into North America via the Bering land bridge at least 300,000
years ago, during the middle of the Pleistocene ice age. Bison have survived at least the last two major glaciations in North America. The primitive form, known as the Steppe Bison, gave rise to several species, at least one of which had much longer horns than today's Bison and was present on the Canadian prairies as recently as 9000 years ago. One lineage gave rise to the present-day species, which emerged about the time of the latest glaciation (15,000 to 20,000 years ago) and then evolved
into two races or subspecies, the Wood Bison (Bison bison athabascae) and the Plains Bison (Bison bison bison).

BISON ANIMAL

The Bison is easy to recognize by its large size, massive forequarters, shoulder hump, large woolly
bearded head, short black horns, and moderately long tail with a tassel of dark hair. Long, shaggy, chocolatebrown hair covers the head, shoulders, and front legs, but the coppery-brown coat on the
hindquarters is short. The massive build and heavy coat of the Bison's forequarters make its
slim hindquarters seem out of proportion. When bulls reach adult size at about six years, they stand 1.8 m at the shoulder and weigh about 550 to 900 kg. Adult females average about 320 to 545 kg. Bulls have thicker horns than cows, with tips that curve inward more. Bulls also have a more prominent hump and bushier hair on the forehead, chin, and neck. Wood Bison are slightly larger and darker than Plains Bison. They have relatively shorter hair on their neck mane and leg chaps and a more pronounced shoulder hump than Plains Bison.

The Bison’s unusual body shape is at least partly an adaptation to the need to forage through snow, which is a constant feature of their great plains and boreal forest environment in winter. They have spines on their upper vertebrae up to 50 cm long in adult bulls. These spines support large muscles that Bison use to swing their neck and head from side to side and clear snow away from their food. Although Bison feed almost entirely on grasses and sedges that easily get covered by snow, they can
exist in areas where snow cover is too deep for most other hoofed mammals (ungulates).

DISTRIBUTION BISON ANIMAL

When European explorers arrived in North America, the Bison's range extended from the Peace River
region of British Columbia and the Great Slave Lake area in the Northwest Territories all the way down to northern Mexico. In Canada they ranged eastward to Manitoba and in the United States, almost to the Atlantic coast. The Rocky Mountains marked their approximate western limit. Wood Bison occupied the boreal forest region of northeast British Columbia, northern Alberta, northwest Saskatchewan, and southwest Mackenzie Territory. The Plains Bison occupied the other parts of the Bison range.

Bison Animal

Bison once numbered about 30 million in North America, but when settlement moved westward in the United States and Canada, they were relentlessly slaughtered. By 1800, there were no more Bison east of the Mississippi, and by 1875, the prairie herds were reduced to isolated pockets. In 1893, there were only 20 free-ranging Bison left in Yellowstone National Park and about 300 in the Wood Buffalo National Park area of northern Alberta and southern Mackenzie Territory. Since that time, numbers have increased due to the protection of wild herds, the reintroduction of Bison into former habitats, and the establishment of fenced-in herds in parks and private ranches.

The total North American Bison population now exceeds 75,000. Historically, Wood and Plains bison occupied different habitats and different geographic ranges. Along the southern edge of historic Wood Bison range (for example, the Peace River area of British Columbia) their winter ranges may have overlapped, but they probably did not share a common range during the breeding season.

There is no way of estimating the historic abundance of Wood Bison in British Columbia. The entire
Canadian population probably numbered about 168,000 in the early 1800s. The population declined
in the latter part of the 1800s and early 1900s, and the last confirmed naturally occurring Wood Bison
was shot near Fort St. John in 1906. In the 1970s, about 50 imported Plains Bison escaped to the wild in the Pink Mountain area, and that population has grown to over 1000 head. Wood Bison have become established in northeast British Columbia as a result of reintroductions and reintroduced
animals from Mackenzie Territory and Alberta moving into the province. In 1999, there were about 80 to 100 Wood Bison in three herds in British Columbia; an additional 100 Bison occupy the Hay-
Zama area in British Columbia and Alberta.

CONSERVATION

The ruthless slaughter of Plains Bison, their decline from many millions to a few hundred, and their
eleventh-hour rescue and restoration form a saga of legendary proportions. Though Plains Bison now
appear to be secure in numerous parks and reserves, agricultural cultivation and settlement make it
virtually impossible to establish free-ranging herds on prairie grasslands today. Uncontrolled hunting during the fur trade in the late 1800s severely depleted Wood Bison populations. North of the Athabasca River, these populations may have numbered 170,000 in primitive times, but by 1891 only 300 remained. Between 1893 and 1922, when Wood Buffalo National Park was formed to protect their habitat, numbers gradually increased to 1500 to 2000 head, thanks to protection against hunting. Between 1925 and 1928, the Canadian government transferred 6673 Plains Bison from overcrowded ranges at Wainwright, Alberta, into Wood Buffalo National Park. These Plains Bison hybridized with the smaller population of Wood Bison and introduced brucellosis and tuberculosis to them.

As a result, people thought Wood Bison were extinct in the 1940s. However, in 1958 biologists discovered a remote population of pure or nearly pure Wood Bison in the northwest corner ofWood Buffalo Park. In the 1960s, Wood Bison from that area were used to establish a new disease-free, captive herd at Elk Island National Park, Alberta, and a free-ranging herd on the northwest side of Great Slave Lake (now known as the Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary). The Elk Island herd was also infected with brucellosis and tuberculosis but is now free of these diseases. Both herds have increased and have been used to reintroduce Bison to historic habitats.

Wood Bison are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Flora and Fauna (CITES). The international export of Wood Bison, including game farm stock, is regulated by CITES permits issued by the province under provisions of the provincial Wildlife Act and the federal Wildlife Trade Act. Since 1997, export for primarily commercial purposes has been permitted. In British Columbia, Wood Bison are on the Red List, which includes the rarest and most imperiled species or subspecies in the province. This designation applies to the small number of Wood Bison which have been released in northeast British Columbia or have spread there following releases in adjacent areas. Plains Bison are on the Blue List, which means they are considered vulnerable and are of special concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events.