White-tailed Eagle Population and Breed

White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)

White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)

The New Year sees adults already re-establishing territories and, in fine weather, indulging in courtship display and nest-building. The earliest recorded eggs in Scotland have appeared on 29 February, but most are laid in late March. Some are not produced until mid-April, by which time the first laid will be hatching. Normal clutch size is two, but three eggs have been recorded at least twice, supporting historic records of clutches of three eggs. Incubation is 38- 40 days. Broods may be one or two chicks, and there is one case of triplets which fledged in 1997, though one of them was found dead only a few months later. Unlike Golden Eagles, White-tailed Eagle siblings rarely exhibit any aggression in the nest. The fledgling period can vary from 10-14 weeks, occasionally longer, presumably depending upon food availability. The latest Scottish fledging date is 29 August 2000, coincidentally from the hundredth chick to be fledged following the reintroduction.

Young birds may remain dependent upon food supplied by adults for several more months, but observations from the reintroduction on Rum showed that some individuals, with access to food dumps, can develop on their own, without any parental example (Love 1983). Juveniles from Rum have ranged as far afield as Northern Ireland and Shetland, but most were reported within 100 km of the island. A similar pattern was shown by the birds later released at Letterewe.

During this second phase, about 300 sightings of young wing-tagged eagles were reported annually, totalling over 2,000 records between 1993 and 2002. Although most White-tailed Eagles are confined to the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the west coast mainland, young birds in their first two or three years may appear anywhere in Scotland. One was even seen over the centre of Glasgow (Clyde) in March 1996!

White-tailed Eagle

Tagged bird ‘Red 7’, set free at Letterewe in the summer of 1993, is a good example of ranging behaviour. It remained near the release site until November, was seen at Munlochy Bay (Ross & Cromarty) from 4-9 December, before heading north to be next reported in Orkney on 25-26 April 1994, at Sumburgh Head, Mainland (Shetland) the following day, and then back again on Orkney on 29 April.

This bird is unique amongst Scottish White-tailed Eagles, being sighted in Fraena, Norway in October 1994 where it began breeding in the summer of 2001. White-tailed Eagles normally breed for the first time at
about five years, but several Scottish birds have paired a year or two earlier in the absence of competition from existing pairs that would be normal in an established population. The youngest Scottish breeding pair was a three-year-old male with a four-year-old female in 2000, which even produced a chick. Sadly, the male was illegally poisoned in 2002, when one of his siblings was successfully fostered into another nest, and the female fell to an identical fate the following year.

Once mature, White-tailed Eagles tend to be faithful to the vicinity of their breeding territory where they may then live long and productive lives. ‘Blondie’ is a case in point: released in Rum in 1979, she moved south to Mull and established one of the first breeding pairs there; and she remained on the island until her death, 21 years later. Her mate disappeared two years later, aged 23 years. Such a lifespan is not unusual; before she finally disappeared in 1918, the last bird in Scotland had a distinctive white plumage and was known to the local Shetland Islanders for some 30 years (Love 1983, Birds of Shetland).

White-tailed Eagle

Population

Close monitoring of this small reintroduced population, a high proportion of which are individually marked, and of its nesting attempts, allows a better measure of its population size than for many other species in Scotland. In 2004, 32 territorial pairs were known with several others in the process of establishment. It is unlikely that more than one or two existing pairs have been overlooked. Since the minimum recruitment is known from imported birds and breeding success, the total population can be estimated at some 250-300 birds. This allows for a minimum 10% mortality over the years, although unreported deaths will augment this figure. Both current estimates of survival (75% for immatures; 97% for adults) and productivity (0.61
young fledged/territorial pair) in Scotland indicate the population to be as healthy as other populations in similar habitat elsewhere in Europe (Bainbridge et al. 2003).

Trends

From a zero population in 1975, the two-phased release of 140 fledglings, together with subsequent breeding success in the wild, has maintained a steady increase, first in the nonbreeding population, and then in the number of territorial pairs. Over this 30-year period the average annual increment in birds equates roughly to 10% of the population, and in breeding pairs to 1-2%. The injection of potential recruits has been erratic, and the establishment of new pairs was at first slow. The number of breeding territories trebled in the last decade, however, as more wildbred birds and extra second phase releases all came of age.

Multiple sightings of 5-8 birds, mainly immatures, are becoming regular in some areas, which is consistent with
the sociability of the species found in Norway and elsewhere. The population might now be expected to
increase exponentially as it becomes more self-sustaining; the rate of increase, of course, depends upon threats.

Threats
Eight unhatched eggs that have been analysed have shown significant traces of chemical pollutants, such as PCBs, DDT and mercury (Love 1988, RSPB/CEH data per R Broad). Slight eggshell thinning can be measured, but the pollutant levels do not seem sufficient to cause serious infertility (M Marquiss pers. comm.).
Continued nest security and surveillance is essential. Sympathetic local communities are increasingly involved in this, and two public viewing facilities are curre n t l y operating in Skye and Mull. Nonetheless, four clutches
have been taken by egg collectors in recent years; and amongst the 25 or so dead birds that were reported up to 2004, at least six were victims of persecution, notably illegal poisoning. It is particularly sad that two thirds of the poisoned birds were adults. To lose established breeders from this small pioneer population is especially damaging to its successful establishment.

Gaps in Current Knowledge
Given the remoteness of some breeding pairs, considerable effort is required to maintain a comprehensive level of census and monitoring, especially as more and more new pairs become established. The sensitivity of eagles to nest disturbance creates gaps in our knowledge about breeding failure, mortality and hence the population’s vulnerability.

White-tailed Eagle Strong and Muscullar Eagles

White-tailed Eagle in Scotland occurs in both inland and coastal habitats. In the past probably bred in lowland woods near estuaries, marshes and lochs, but during its decline in the 19th century became more restricted to the coast (Love 1983). Nests were usually on steep cliff ledges although trees were used wherever available. Since its reintroduction to Scotland, many old cliff sites are being reused, but some pairs prefer coastal woodlands or new forest plantations. In winter, adults tend to remain in the vicinity of their breeding territories, while juveniles and immatures range much more widely, often being found around estuaries on the east coast, and occasionally inland in agricultural areas or moorland.

Scottish Range, Distribution and Status
White-tailed Eagle, following a successful reintroduction in the 1970s and 1980s, has consolidated its position, so that there are now over 30 territorial pairs, mostly on the Inner and Outer Hebrides and on the west coast. Non-breeding, sub-adult birds wander over large distances and have been observed well away from the west coast breeding areas all over Scotland. A very small number of continental birds are also seen as passage birds and winter visitors.

White-tailed Eagle

Early evidence for the presence of White-tailed Eagle in Scotland include bones found in a Bronze Age burial cairn in North Ronaldsay (Orkney) (Hedges 1984), and the species is beautifully portrayed on various Pictish symbol stones, with the best being from the Knowe of Burrian, Mainland (Orkney) (Love 1983, 2003). It also features in early Celtic art, and particularly in Anglo-Saxon poetry in which eagles are described as scavenging off human corpses after a battle. James Fisher (1966a) considered that the mention of eagles in the 7th century Old English poem ‘The Seafarer’ referred to the Bass Rock (Lothian).

Over the centuries the felling of ancient woodland and the drainage of fens and marshes caused it to disappear from many lowland areas in England. A few pairs persisted in southern Scotland, such as the Mull of Galloway and Cairnsmore of Fleet (both Dumfries & Galloway), as recorded by early naturalists (Gladstone 1910a). By the 19th century, it had become largely a bird of the north and west coasts of Scotland and Shetland.

White-tailed Eagles are much more approachable, and more tolerant of human presence, than Golden Eagles, which makes them particularly vulnerable to persecution, by shooting and, given their carrion-feeding habits, especially amongst juveniles, poisoning. Other human factors such as over-fishing inshore, and the clearance of woodland beside streams, with the resultant loss of fertility and fish stocks from freshwater lochs, may also have impacted on White-tailed Eagles. It is significant that two other raptors to disappear from Scotland at the same time were the Osprey, a species much sought after by egg collectors, and the Red Kite, another carrion-feeder and an easy victim of poisoning. As White-tailed Eagle became rare late in the 19th century, its dull white eggs also began to attract interest. At this time the Highland Clearances forced people from inland habitats to those on the coast.

White-tailed Eagle

The coastal nests of such conspicuous and noisy birds as White-tailed Eagles were well known. Increasingly they became the target not just for collectors, but also gamekeepers, and shepherds angry at lamb losses. In
contrast, Golden Eagle, being a shy bird of the high mountains and glens, found sanctuary long enough to gain
a respite from persecution during the two World Wars.

By the beginning of the 20th century White-tailed Eagle was almost extinct (Historical Atlas). A few nests persisted, such as on the Shiant Islands (Outer Hebrides), A rd n a m u rchan Point, Rum (both Lochaber) and the remote headlands of Skye (Skye & Lochalsh), with the last pair breeding at Dunvegan Head, Skye in 1916. In Shetland up to five pairs bred in 1899, but by 1910 only one pair nested on Yell, with the male dying that year (Birds of Shetland). The female was shot in 1918, the last native White-tailed Eagle in Britain. When White-tailed Eagles had disappeared, Golden Eagles, which were slowly recovering numbers, were able to occupy former White tailed Eagle territories, even the very nest ledges, on the coast. Previously, both species had co-existed on larger, mountainous islands like Rum, Skye, Jura, Mull (latter two both Argyll) and Harris (Outer Hebrides), each species with its own specific set of ecological requirements.

There may have been a measure of overlap, but they were unlikely to have been in direct competition. White-tailed Eagle is slowly regaining former haunts on the coast where it will always be the better adapted of the two species due to its ability to fish (Love 2003). There have been some detailed studies into the diet of the re-established Scottish birds which indicate that there is some overlap of diet between White-tailed and Golden Eagles, with the former taking more birds and fish, and that some White-tailed Eagles specialise on certain prey (Watson et al. 1992a, Madders & Marquiss 2003, Marquiss et al. 2003b).

White-tailed Eagle

White-tailed Eagle subsequently became a very rare vagrant to Scotland, with just seven records from the 1920s to the 1950s. Most of these were seen on off-shore islands and in coastal areas, with three observed on Fair Isle, two on Shetland, and singles on Canna (Lochaber) and Mull (Yeaman 1932, Waterston 1936, Carrick & Waterston 1939, Birds of Shetland). On the mainland the head of an immature was recovered in Kincardineshire (North-east Scotland) in mid-June 1942 (Pennie 1942), and a sub-adult was present well inland at Av i e m o re (Badenoch & Strathspey) on 23 May 1927 (Gordon 1927b).

These vagrants were both immature and adult birds, likely originating from populations in Fennoscandia.
Careful guidelines were developed in the 1970s by conservation bodies to regulate animal re i n t roductions, for example, the persistence of suitable habitat, the removal of the original extinction factors, and a suitable donor population, which will not suffer as a result. All of this demands a thorough knowledge of the species’ past history, biology and current status. B&R began this process and Love (1983, 1988, 2003) provided greater detail.

The former distribution and demise of White-tailed Eagle in Britain, and in Scotland in part i c u l a r, was analysed using place names, such as Ern e ’s Heugh, Ern e ’s Brae and Creag na h-iolaire , along with written accounts from sportsmen and early naturalists. In addition, museum collections of eggs and skins w e re utilised. This research revealed nearly 100 known nest sites in Scotland, and there would have been many others, especially if more information had been available from early lowland areas. It also showed the geographical separation between White-tailed and Golden Eagles.

White-tailed Eagle was first re i n t roduced, unsuccessfully, in 1959 when three birds, including a captive adult, were set free in Glen Etive (Argyll) (Sandeman 1965). Four more birds were released in 1968 on Fair Isle (Dennis 1968, 1969b), but the first sustained eff o rt began on Rum in 1975, and a total of 82 were released by 1985 (Love 1983, 1988). A second phase was operated from Letterewe (Ross & Cromarty), with 58 more birds released between 1993 and 1998 (Evans et al. 2003b). All but one of the eagles set free in Scotland were fledglings taken under licence from northern Norway. At least 10% of the released birds have been found dead, mostly while they were immature.

Breeding in the wild commenced in 1983, and the first fledgling took wing in 1985. The first Scottish-bred birds nested in 1996, producing young two years later. Up to 2004 a total of 168 young had fledged in the wild and by then comprised nearly 60% of terr i t o ry-holders (R Evans pers. comm.). By 2004 t h e re were 32 occupied territories, confined to the west coast mainland and the Inner and Outer Hebrides, and the breeding population appeared to be self-sustaining.

The establishment of the reintroduced population was slow at first. No eggs were produced until 1983 when one of two breeding attempts involved a trio (a pair with a second female); both clutches were damaged as a consequence. Such trios have since been observed in the Scottish population several times, and may persist for several years. At the same time, a second pair formed between a three year old male and a four-year-old female (nicknamed ‘Blondie’), but they soon deserted their single egg. It was this pair that eventually produced, in 1985, the very first eaglet to be reared in Scotland for 70 years.

Although at times several birds, including apparent adults, have been seen together in both Orkney and Shetland, it is surprising that none have yet remained there to breed. One immature sighted in Shetland in June 2001 bore Norwegian colour rings (Birds of Shetland). Another colour-ringed bird, seen at Loch of Strathbeg (Nort h - e a s t Scotland) in March 2004 was from the continent, probably from Finland. An immature recovered dead in Norfolk in 1984 bore a ring from nort h e rnGermany, thus supporting the possibility that European birds may occur in Scotland in the future. The only Scottish bird sighted in England was a blue-tagged bird, fledged in 2002, which was seen in March 2003 in Bowland, Lancashire .

Lesser Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos Beautiful Birds

sulphur-crested cockatoo or Timor cockatoo, Citron crested cockatoo, Cacatua sulphurea sulphurea is also a subspecies

Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoos are small white cockatoos with a yellow recurved crest. They can be distinguished from medium sulphur crested cockatoos by size and the presence of a large yellow ear patch in the Lesser. The underside of the flight feathers are yellow. Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoos are found on Sulawesi Island in Indonesia. They inhabit forest edge, woodland and cultivated areas, and are sparsely distributed throughout their range. They feed in trees and on the ground, feeding on seeds, crops, fruits, berries, buds, flowers and nuts, including immature coconuts.

Lesser Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos

They are most active in early morning and late afternoon. They are usually found in pairs or small flocks. Length is 13 to 14 inches. Weight is 250-400 grams. Males are generally larger than females and have larger heads and beaks. Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoos can live up to 40 years. Precise data on life span of the average Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo is poorly documented. Many secumb to disease or injury rather than living for their potential lifespan. Lesser sulphur-crested breed well in the United States. Breeding age can be as young as 2 years but is often up to 4-6 years, especially in hand-fed birds. Breeding life span is not precisely known but is possibly up to 25+ years.

Personality

Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoos are active, high-energy birds. They are gentle and playful, but tend to be shy. Lesser sulphur-crested don’t often speak well. They are not so demanding and possessive as the larger white cockatoos.

Lesser Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos

Activities

Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoos are inquisitive and love to chew objects in their surroundings but are not as destructive as other cockatoos. They should always be provided with toys, blocks of wood or branches that they can chew. In order to ensure safety companion cockatoos should not be allowed unsupervised freedom in the home as they often encounter toxins or dangerous items. Young cockatoos should be socialized to many people and exposed to a variety of situations such as new cages, toys, visits to the veterinarian, handling by friends, wing and nail clips, etc. to avoid fear of novel situations. They need to have some space for exercise.

Dietary Needs

Cockatoos should be fed a formulated (pelleted or extruded diet) as a basis for good nutrition. Kaytee Exact is a good choice for their staple diet. The diet should be supplemented with fresh fruits and vegetables daily to add variety and

Steller’s Sea Eagle Migration Ice Haibitat

The Steller’s Sea Eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus occupies a limited breeding range along the seacoasts and on islands and rivers of eastern Siberia from Koryakland south to northern Korea. Part of the population over-winters in the breeding range, concentrating around ice-free portions of lakes, rivers and the sea (Nakagawa et al. 1987, Lobkov & Neufeldt 1986). Others move south to Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands, Korea, and the coast of the Russian mainland (Babenko et al. 1988, Lobkov 1988, Nakagawa & Fujimaki 1988).

At least 20 fledglings moved to pre-migration sites for 1-4 weeks. This behavior was most obvious for birds whose nesting sites were coastal. Pre-migration sites were on the lower reaches of rivers and might be areas where dead (post-spawning) salmon are found in abundance. Eagles raised on large rivers and lakes tended to wander along rivers prior to the onset of a definite migratory push.

Steller’s Sea Eagle

Steller’s Sea Eagle Birds initiated migration between August 18 and November 15. Birds marked in 1997 migrated earlier than those marked in 1998. Migration occurred between August 18 and January 14. All but one followed established migration routes. The pace of migration varied considerably. Birds took 5 to 116 days to reach their initial wintering destinations. Migration rate averaged 51.3 km/day (SD = 56.0). Most birds from Magadan and Amur migrated down the western edge of the Okhotsk Sea, and birds reared in Kamchatka moved down the Kuril Island chain. The eagle whose migration patterns was ‘atypical’ (ID 23374) was marked in Magadan region. It made an initial move west, then turned east, and migrated to the Kamchatka Peninsula. Only one location between the breeding and wintering grounds was estimated for this bird. This was of relatively low quality, but was located in the middle of the sea, and suggests that the bird may have made a sea crossing. The shortest crossing would be about 730 km.

 Korea. Part of the population over-winters in the breeding range, concentrating around ice-free portions of lakes, rivers and the sea (Nakagawa et al. 1987, Lobkov & Neufeldt 1986). Others move south to Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands, Korea, and the coast of the Russian mainland (Babenko et al. 1988, Lobkov 1988, Nakagawa & Fujimaki 1988).  Twenty-nine, nestling Steller’s Sea Eagles were fitted with PTTs in the summers of 1997 and 1998. Twenty-four provided data useful in understanding post-fledging movements,
twelve from Magadan, 7 from Amur, 4 from Kamchatka and 1 from Sakhalin. We are still (27 January, 1999) receiving information from six birds.

Steller’s Sea Eagle

Fledging occurred in August and early September for most Steller’s Sea eagles. Nestling dispersal (when the eagle moved permanently more than 5 km from the nest site) occurred 9 September to 6 December (N = 24). Twenty-two nestlings dispersed 14 September - 21 October. Dates of dispersal did not differ between years or regions.
Twenty-nine nestling Steller’s Sea Eagles Haliaeetus pelagicus were fitted with satellitereceived transmitters (PTTs) in the summers of 1997 and 1998. Twenty-four provided data useful in understanding post-fledging movements, 12 from Magadan, 7 from Amur, four from Kamchatka, and one from Sakhalin. At this time (27 January 1999), we are still receiving information from six birds. Fledging occurred in August and early September. At least 20 fledglings moved to pre-migration sites for 1-4 weeks. This behavior was most obvious for birds whose natal ranges were coastal.

Steller’s Sea Eagles raised on large rivers and lakes tended to wander along rivers prior to the onset of a definite migratory push. Nineteen birds were followed south, 16 made it to wintering areas. Eagles took 5-116 days to reach their initial wintering destinations. Migration rate averaged 51.3 km/day (SD = 56.0). Most birds from Magadan and Amur migrated down the western edge of the Okotsk Sea, and birds reared in Kamchatka eventually moved onto the Kuril Islands. Two birds were tracked from fledging into their second autumn migration. They moved northward from the wintering grounds in the second and third week of April. Summering areas were south of natal areas, and both had early and late summering areas.

White-Tailed Sea Eagle and Sea Eagle Large Birds

The white-tailed sea eagle is ENORMOUS. It has wide, rectangular-shaped wings and a wing span of over 8 feet. It is the fourth largest eagle in the world and is sometimes called the flying barn door. Their skill at catching fish is legendary and the longest of their 8 talons grown up to 4.6 cms long - No wonder the sea eagle has been a bird of myth and legend in Scotland for thousands of years.

White-Tailed Sea Eagle

The white-tailed sea eagle once lived all over Britain, even nesting as far south as the Isle of Wight in 1780. The last known sea eagle in the UK lived in Shetland. She was an albino (all white) and the locals had protected her for over 30 years. Eventually she was shot in 1918 and the sea eagle became EXTINCT in Britain. Sea Eagles had been wiped out by persecution by farmers and gamekeepers. One Scottish estate at Glengarry recorded a total of 1372 birds of prey killed between 1837 and 1840 including 27 white-tailed eagles.

White-Tailed Sea Eagle

Although white-tailed sea eagles were extinct in Britain, they continued to breed successfully in Norway and efforts to reintroduce the birds to Scotland started in 1968. Young birds were transported to Scotland from nests in Norway. The population in Scotland is thought to be around 31 pairs so they are still very RARE. Unfortunately the eagles are not safe yet, as many of the nests (also called eyries) need to be constantly watched to prevent egg-thieves from taking their eggs. They are also sometimes found poisoned or shot. Organisations such as Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) and the RSPB as well as many individuals and
local groups are working to protect these amazing creatures.

Sea Eagle

Sea eagles are PREDATORS, this means that they are hunters and eat meat. Fish is one of their main foods, but they also enjoy sea birds, ducks and mammals like rabbits. They are also SCAVENGERS, picking over the carcasses of dead animals like deer or sheep as it takes a lot less energy than fishing and hunting. Imagine how the ancient people of Scotland felt about the sea eagles. Write your own legend or story about Scottish sea eagles. Below is an example of a food web including the sea eagle. For a more simple food web, leave
out the brown section. The arrows show the flow of energy in the system. Produce cards with the names of the plants and animals on. In groups, ask the students to arrange the arrows and names into a food web.

White Tailed Sea Eagle, Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus Albicilla

American Bald Eagle Kings Of Eagle Birds

American Bald Eagle, Bald Eagle
When the American bald eagle became the official symbol of America in 1782, Benjamin Franklin had
some objections. He even wrote a letter to his daughter explaining why he thought the bald eagle was
a poor choice to represent our country. In the letter, Franklin said the bald eagle was a lazy thief because it let other birds catch fish in rivers and then swooped down to steal their dinners. He also said that the American bald eagle was a coward because it ran away from smaller birds protecting their nests. Franklin didn’t want a bird that could be seen as a thief and a coward to represent America. He thought the symbol should be something that was both brave and honest. Franklin’s other complaint was that the drawing of the bald eagle used in the great seal actually looked more like a wild turkey. This made Franklin compare the two birds, and he decided the wild turkey would have been a better symbol for our country. He said that the turkey was a more respectable bird since it was not afraid of others birds and was native to America.

American Bald Eagle

Did Franklin really want the wild turkey to be the national symbol? We may never know for sure, but he definitely was not happy about having a symbol that could be associated with laziness, theft, and cowardice either. Franklin only expressed his concerns through a letter to his daughter, but imagine what it would have meant for our country if Franklin had rallied people around the wild turkey being used as our national symbol. Thanksgiving may have been very different.

The American Bald Eagle was selected as the USA’s National Emblem by our country’s Founding Fathers in on June 20, 1782 at the Second Continental Congress. For over 200 years, the eagle has served as the pride of America’s skies and the living symbol of all that we Americans stand for...Freedom, Democracy, Courage, Strength, Spirit, and Excellence. Since the founding of our country, there has never been a “special day” set aside to annually recognize our country’s inspirational national bird and the role that it has played in our lives, past and present. Together, the AEF and your organization/club can help make June 20th both a state and national “American Eagle Day” to annually remember and commemorate this majestic and important American symbol.

American Bald Eagle

You should complete activities of your choice from each of the following sections to learn more about the important role the American Bald Eagle has played in our country’s history. Then, take a step to give it a formal place on our calendar by helping establish an annually-celebrated “American Eagle Day” both in your state and nationally. When the activities are completed, your group can choose to purchase an “American Eagle Day” patch to recognize the achievement of your participating group members.

HISTORY:
Explore the history of how the American Bald Eagle became the symbol of our country. Why was it chosen and when? Discover how we almost lost this majestic bird to extinction in the lower 48 states. Learn how caring Americans joined together to save and protect it.

American Bald Eagle

The Great Seal of the United States depicts an American Bald Eagle. Learn what each part of the symbol represents. What is on the back of the Great Seal and what does it represent? Find other places where the American Eagle is part of the artwork, such as the President’s Seal, flags, patches, sport teams’ mascots, etc. Look for places where the Great Seal is shown, such as on our money. Do all the images show respect for the American Bald Eagle’s image as our National Symbol?  Explore some of the myths and legends pertaining to the American • Bald Eagle. How has the American Bald Eagle been immortalized by the Native American culture? Is the eagle used as a symbol for other countries or states?

Golden Eagle Bird Populations Winter in California

Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, Bald Eagle

The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is a large, dark-brown raptor with long, broad wings and a golden nape (Kochert et al. 2002). Total length ranges from 70-84 cm (28-33 inches) and wingspan ranges from 185-220 cm (73-87 inches) (Kochert et al. 2002). Weight of these large raptors ranges from 3,000 to 6,125 g (8.7 – 13.5 lbs), with females approximately 25% larger than males (Kochert et al. 2002). Males and females are otherwise identical. Juvenile birds have tails that are white at the base and dark at the tip, and have white patches on the underside of the wing (Kochert et al. 2002).

Seasonal Patterns
Throughout most of the western United States golden eagles are mostly year-long residents (Polite and Pratt 1999), breeding from late January through August with peak activity in March through July (Polite and Pratt 1999). Migratory patterns are usually fairly local in California where adults are relatively sedentary, but dispersing juveniles sometimes migrate south in the fall (Kaufman 1996). They may move attitudinally in
response to changing weather conditions (USFS 2008). They may also move down-slope for winter or upslope after the breeding season (Polite and Pratt 1999).

Golden Eagle-Bad Eagle

Golden eagle populations in the northern portion of its range are generally migratory with populations in the extreme northern portion being entirely migratory (USFS 2008). Some northern populations winter in California.

Golden eagles construct a large nest of branches, twigs, and stems of any kind (Kochert et al. 2002). Maintenance on the nest can occur at any time of year (Kochert et al. 2002). Golden eagles often maintain alternate nest sites within a breeding territory, and old nests are refurbished and reused (Zeiner et al. 1990). Females lay 1-3 eggs in early February to mid- May (Polite and Pratt 1999). Incubation typically takes 43-45 days (Beebe 1974) and the nestling period usually 65-70 days (Polite and Pratt 1999). The male delivers
food to the female, and the female feeds the young (USFS 2008). The young fly at about 50 days, remaining near the nest site for a few weeks (Baicich and Harrison 1997, Zeiner et al. 1990). Breeding site fidelity in adults is high (USFS 2008).

Golden eagle breeding success is variable and often fluctuates in close correlation with prey population abundance (USFS 2008). Annual reproductive success rates in Oregon were correlated with jackrabbit abundance, with a 15-year mean of 1.08 young fledged per breeding territory, 1.7 young fledged per successful nest, and 51% of the nests successful (Johnsgard 1990). More recently, Hunt et al. (1999) reported natality estimates of 0.64 and 0.58 young per pair for 57 and 59 pairs, respectively, in 1996 and
1997, within a 190-sq km (73 sq mi) study area in the central Coast Ranges. Golden eagles are considered to be long-lived birds. Captive golden eagles have lived more than 40 years, and one captive bird reached 48 years of age (USFS 2008). There is one record of a wild golden eagle living at least 20. Another eagle (a female) was known to live for 30 years (Brown 1977, Roberson and Tenney 1993).

Golden Eagle - Aquila chrysaetos

Home Range/Territory Size
Home ranges are likely the same as territory size (Polite and Pratt 1999). Size of home range related to prey density and availability, and openness of terrain (Polite and Pratt 1999). Territories are well defined and actively defended (USFS 2008). Pairs tend to nest on the periphery of their territories, often near an adjacent pair (USFS 2008). Golden eagle territories in southern California were found to average 93 km2 (36 mi2)
(Dixon 1937), while northern California territories average 124 km2 (48 mi2) (Smith and Murphy 1973). Territories are generally larger in open grassland habitats than in more complex, mountainous terrain (Roberson and Tenney 1993). Territories are defended year-round by use of aerial behaviors such as undulating flight displays, dives, mock attacks, and soaring or "hanging on the wind" over the area (Johnsgard 1990).

Foraging Behavior and Diet
Golden eagles primarily prey on lagomorphs and rodents but will also takes other mammals, birds, reptiles, and some carrion (Polite and Pratt 1999). Studies of golden eagle diet indicate that mammals comprise 82 percent of the diet, supplemented by birds at 12.6 percent, with the remainder consisting of reptiles and fish (USFS 2008). Throughout its range, mammalian prey most commonly taken includes black-tailed jackrabbit, arctic ground squirrel (Spermophilus parryi), white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii), and yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) (Johnsgard 1990). Avian prey includes waterfowl and wading birds to the size of Canada goose (Branta canadensis), great blue heron (Ardea herodias), and cranes (Grus spp.) (Dunne et al. 1988).

Lagomorphs make up most of the diet of golden eagles throughout North America (Olendorff 1976). Several studies have suggested a relationship between golden eagle reproductive success and density of black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus Californicus) (Murphy 1975, Kochert 1980, Thompson et al. 1982). In most areas, however, a wide range of prey species are taken (Thelander 1974, Olendorff 1976, Bloom and Hawks
1982, Collopy 1983). Some studies indicate that golden eagles shift their selection of prey species with changes in prey density (McGahan 1968, Bloom and Hawks 1982, Steenhof and Kochert 1988).

Golden Eagle

In the interior central Coast Ranges of California, golden eagles forage primarily in grazed grasslands, open shrublands, and oak savanna communities supporting large populations of ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) (Carnie 1954). Most studies of golden eagle foraging habits have shown that ground squirrels (S. beecheyi) are the principal prey item of golden eagles in the interior central Coast Ranges (Dixon 1937, Carnie 1954, Connelly et al. 1976, Hunt et al. 1999). Golden eagles hunt by soaring high (30-90 m [98-295 feet]) along open ridges; they also make low (7-8 m [23-26 feet]), coursing flights (Polite and Pratt 1999). They will occasionally hunt from an exposed perch, where they initiate directed flights toward prey (Zeiner et al. 1990).

Habitat Requirements and Ecology
Golden eagles nest primarily on cliffs and hunt in nearby open habitats, such as grasslands, oak savannas, and open shrublands (Grinnell and Miller 1944). Rugged, open habitats with canyons and escarpments are used most frequently for nesting (Polite and Pratt 1999). Trees may also be used for nesting and are more commonly used in the interior Coast Ranges where suitable cliff nesting habitat is scarce. Nest trees include
several species of oak (Quercus spp.), foothill pine (Pinus sabianiana and P. coulteri), California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), and western sycamore (Plantanus racemosa) (Hunt et al. 1999). Nests are typically located 3-30 meters (10-100 ft) above the ground (USFS 2008). They are known to occur from sea level up to 3,833 meters (0-11,500 ft) (Grinnell and Miller 1944).

Important elements of suitable breeding habitat include 1) cliff ledges, rocky outcrops, or large trees for nesting; 2) open foraging terrain such as grassland, desert, savannah, and shrubland; and 3) availability of small to medium-sized mammalian prey, particularly ground squirrels and rabbits (Zeiner et al. 1990, Kochert et al. 2002). In southern California, golden eagles generally avoid heavily forested mountains, the coast, and
urban areas (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Garrett and Dunn 1981). In central California, golden eagles have nested primarily in open grassland and oak savannah, and occasionally in oak woodland and open shrubland habitats (Hunt et al. 1995, 1999).

Species Distribution and Population Trends

Distribution
In North America, the golden eagle breeds mainly in western portion (west of the 100th meridian) of the continent from Alaska south to central Mexico, with small numbers in eastern Canada and a few isolated pairs in eastern United States (Kochert 2002). In California, the species is an uncommon permanent resident and migrant throughout the state, except for the center of the Central Valley (Polite and Pratt 1999). It is considered more common in southern California than in the northern part of the state (USFS 2008); however, the central interior Coast Ranges support a significant nesting and wintering population (Hunt et al. 1999).

Population 

The golden eagle appears to be thriving in North America; however, relatively few reliable population estimates exist (USFS 2008). Approximately 25,000 pairs have been estimated for the New World, and a world population of 50,000-75,000 pairs was conservatively estimated in 2001 (Johnsgard 1990). However, long-term survey data indicate overall population declines in most of the western United States (Kochert and
Steenhof 2002). Golden eagle populations have declined, in particular, near human population centers (Thelander 1974, Scott 1985). Additionally, declines have been noted, especially along the southern California coast, as a result of habitat loss (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).

The nesting distribution of golden eagles in Yolo County is restricted to the high elevation mountainous areas on the western side of the county. Like most of the interior Coast Ranges, this area is dominated by a mixture of oak woodland and chaparral communities, steep topography, and rocky ridges. There are potential cliff nesting sites along Blue Ridge and other high elevation ridge lines, some isolated rock outcrop sites that are capable of supporting golden eagle nests, and numerous potential tree-nesting sites. There are few official records of golden eagle nests in the area (CNDDB reports no nesting golden eagles for Yolo County [CNDDB 2008]); however, several have been incidentally reported over the years and are likely extant.

Javan Hawk Eagle Endangred Habitat And Populations

Javan Hawk Eagle, Spizaetus bartelsi, Indonesia Elang Jawa

The Javan Hawk Eagle Spizaetus bartelsi is endemic to the island of Java (Indonesia) and is confined to the
lowland and hill rainforests and the montane ever-wet rainforests. It has been recorded up to 3,000 m in the
western part of the island, but can also be found at sea level. Until recently it was thought that the species only
occurred on the westernmost and easternmost parts of the island (e.g. Thiollay and Meyburg 1988), but
research conducted by the authors in the central part of Java documented its presence throughout the island in
the best preserved forest areas (Sözer and Nijman 1995b). The most recent estimates (S. van Balen, V. Nijman, unpubl. data), based on extrapolation using average territory size and total area of suitable habitat,
reveal that c. 142-204 breeding pairs (or c. 600-1000 individual birds, including immatures) remain. This low
number, the continuing habitat destruction, as well as the trade in the species, justify its inclusion as Endangered in Birds to watch 2 (Collar et al. 1994).

Javan Hawk Eagle

The field identification of the Javan Hawk Eagle has always been notoriously difficult due to a lack of
adequate descriptions of its plumages in the different stages of its life before it reaches maturity. Although
Bartels (1924) had already drawn attention to the various immature plumages, his descriptions remain
unpublished. Descriptions of the species in standard works on raptors (e.g. Brown and Amadon 1968, Weick
and Brown 1980, Burton 1989) have been inadequate, as most of the illustrations have shown juveniles or
immatures. More than adults, immatures tend to wander and are occasionally seen outside the tall forests; hence they are more easily observed. Even if an ‘adult’ has been depicted, it has at best been an immature showing some adult features, but still lacking the most important characters for field identification (e.g. Hoogerwerf 1949, MacKinnon 1990).

Javan Hawk Eagles can sometimes be seen perching in a large tree inside, or even at the edge of, the forest. The bird occasionally perches in smaller trees near the ground. When perched it often raises its crest. One of the most characteristic features of the adult is the chestnut-coloured head with a black crown and yellow-brown nape (appearing golden in sunshine), which always contrast with the much darker body and
wings. The crest is seldom seen on a flying bird. Flying immatures appear cinnamon-brown from below with a similar, but less pronounced, wing pattern. The flight pattern of the juvenile as depicted in MacKinnon and Phillips (1993) shows a white plumage, an error that might have originated from Kuroda’s confusion of the white juvenile Rufous-bellied Eagle with Javan Hawk Eagle (cf. van Balen 1993). From above the immatures are paler and more mottled than the adults. The wingspan of juveniles seems slightly smaller, while the tail seems longer than those of adults.

Javan Hawk Eagle

The Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis is easily recognised by its larger wingspan (especially compared to its tail) and more obvious fingering; immatures can be quite pale brown and, when seen briefly, may cause confusion, but they remain much darker and lack wing-bars. Compared to the Javan Hawk Eagle its flight is less stable, almost unbalanced, resembling kites; typically when soaring the tips of the wings are held upward. The Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela is smaller, and while soaring holds its wings forward; the wings are held in a characteristic shallow V-shape in a flat plane with the head; in adults the white band on the underwing is clearly visible. The Rufous-bellied Eagle is smaller than the Javan Hawk Eagle and shows no barring; due to its large crest this eagle can resemble a Javan Hawk Eagle, especially when perched or when seen in silhouet only.

Recently a hitherto undescribed plumage phase of the Oriental Honey-buzzard Per nis ptilorhyncus
ptilorhyncus was found in the southern region of West Java (van Balen et al. in prep.). This form (possibly an
immature) lacks the barring on its underparts and shows similarities with immature Javan Hawk Eagle, similar as described for the Sulawesi Hawk Eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus and the Barred Honey-buzzard Per nis celebensis (e.g. Meyer and Wigglesworth 1898, Watling 1983). Although Oriental Honey-buzzards are much smaller and more slender than Javan Hawk Eagles, and their mode of flight (very deep wing beats) is quite different as well, the possible similarity in their plumage has to be taken into account when identifying these species.

Javan Hawk Eagles a medium to large, slender eagle with a total length of c. 60-70 cm. Sexual dimorphism is reversed and appears moderate (Nijman and Sözer, 1996); despite the female being larger and more robust than the male, the overall appearance remains slender. The head is chestnut-brown and the nape is yellow-brown. The crown has dark brown or even black feathers with thin buff margins and the area round the eye appears very dark with pronounced eyebrows. The iris is bright yellow and the bill is dark grey to black with a grey cere. The crest consists of two to four long (up to 12 cm), black feathers with white tips and it may be fan-shaped or pointed (van Balen et al. 1994). The throat can be almost pure white, bordered by dark brown to black moustachial stripes and with a dark brown mesial stripe.

Javan Hawk Eagle

The back and upperwings are dark brown with buff margins to the feathers; the tips of the primaries are black. The inaccuracies in the literature are based on historical misidentifications (e.g. Kuroda 1936, depicts a Rufous-bellied Eagle Hieraaetus kienerii) and the fact that most of the illustrations are based on older depictions and museum skins. In addition, the few flight images in the literature are rather poor, uncharacteristic and, once again, mainly based on immature birds.

The upperside of the tail is dark brown with four black bands and a thin white terminal band. The underside of the tail is greyish-buff with four brown bands and a white margin. The underparts are whitish-buff to white; the breast is marked with bold, dark brown drop-shaped marks, and the belly is narrowly barred dark brown. The talons are quite long with feathers covering the base of the feet.

Black Eagle One Africa’s Largest Eagles

Black Eagle-Africa Black Eagle

An Black eagle can be described as a large, to very large bird of prey which is not a kite, buzzard, vulture, hawk or falcon. Although Black eagles are considered by many as being large, powerful and aggressive birds there is a great variation in size from 620g for a male Ayres’ Hawk Eagle to 6,5kg for a female Martial Eagle. However, the largest eagles in the world are females of Harpy Eagle (9kg), Steller’s Sea Eagle (9kg) and Philippine Eagle (8kg). Generally females are about a third larger in mass than males, in a pattern called reversed sexual dimorphism (RSD).

Of some 57 species of eagles found worldwide, 17 species occur in Zimbabwe. Thirteen species are considered resident, while Steppe and Lesser Spotted Eagles are Palaearctic migrants, and Wahlberg’s Eagle is an intra-African migrant. Palaearctic migrants breed in Eurasia and north Africa . Booted Eagle is both a Palaearctic and intra-African migrant as there are two distinct populations, the latter race breeding in South Africa. A migrant is one of a massive shift of birds twice each year between breeding and wintering ranges.

Black Eagle

An intra-African migrant is a bird that migrates seasonally within Africa, arriving in Zimbabwe during the austral summer (wet) season and moving north during our winter (dry) season. A Palaearctic migrant is a bird that migrates seasonally from the Palaearctic to Africa during our summer and returning north again during our winter. A nomad is one of an aggregation of birds, including adults, that move irregularly or erratically from one area to another for ecological reasons (usually food and/or water). Consequently a group of juvenile and/or immature birds found away from their natal area would not be considered nomads, as they would be involved in juvenile dispersal. This article introduces a series of vignettes on eagles found in Zimbabwe, starting with the Black Eagle.

Black Eagle One of Africa’s largest eagles (male 3- 4kg, female 4-5kg), the Black Eagle occurs throughout Zimbabwe inhabiting granite inselbergs, sandstone hills, gorges and escarpments. Unusually high concentrations are in the Matobo Hills, containing one of the highest densities of eagle in the world, and up to 60 pairs of black eagles have been found breeding in a 620 square kilometre survey area. Seven pairs have been found breeding along 60km of the Batoka Gorge below Victoria Falls, while some 17 pairs have been found in the Bubiana Conservancy near West Nicholson. Rocky outcrops provide ideal habitat for them and their prey of hyraxes.

Black Eagle

They usually build their large stick nest on a rocky ledge. However, in Zimbabwe it is not unusual for black eagles to nest in trees and this has been recorded at a site near Lake Kariba, Hwange National Park, the south-eastern Lowveld and in the Matobo Hills. Breeding starts in March-April. Normally two eggs are laid, but only one chick survives, as the older “Cain” kills the smaller and younger “Abel” a week after hatching. No satisfactory explanation has been advanced for this behaviour that characterises several other eagles found in the tropics, including Crowned, Tawny and African Hawk Eagles.

In the Matobo Hills, droughts have reduced hyrax numbers by 80% from 1972 to 1992, which has probably caused the 40% reduction in black eagles. Predation pressure on hyraxes has probably increased dramatically as populations of prey and predator have declined disproportionately. This is probably most acute in unprotected Communal Lands, where Black Eagle populations are sparsely distributed, because hyrax
numbers have also declined sharply from hunting (for food, and skins for sale to tourists), and by habitat destruction. However, in the Matobo Hills this trend is being reversed by conservation work by the Ornithological Unit of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, which is monitoring eagles
and running an educational programme in the rural schools.

Black Eagle

The Black Eagles have been studied continuously for 34 years by the Matabeleland Branch of the Ornithological Association of Zimbabwe, amounting to one of the most successful amateur efforts in ornithology worldwide. The programme was led by Val Gargett for 20 years and her monograph on the Black Eagles of the Matobo Hills is regarded as one of the finest accounts ever written on a single species. Despite such intensive research, some fundamental questions remain unanswered, such as; Where do the young birds go? This is being addressed by current research efforts where some juveniles have been fitted with radio transmitters.

Medium Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo Distribution and Breeding

Medium Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo, Eleanora cockatoo or Medium, Cacatua galerita eleanora Indonesia

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are a subspecies of Cacatua galerita Along with the well know Greater sulphur crested and Triton cockatoos. Medium sulphur-cresteds are large white cockatoos with recurved yellow crests and the tips curl upward. The only other color is yellow on the insides of the wings. The crest feathers spread out and up when the crest is erect. They have blue-eye rings and a smaller beak than the triton.

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are found on the Aru and Kai Islands in the northern Maluku province of Indonesia. They inhabit lowland forests, especially mature canopy forests along rivers. They also frequent cleared lands. They are most active in early morning and late afternoon. Wild cockatoos feed on nuts, seeds, berries and insects. Length is 17 to 19 inches. Weight is 500 to 700 grams. Males are generally larger than females and have larger heads and beaks.

Medium Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo

Medium sulphur-cresteds and other cockatoo species can be very long lived and a few individuals in zoos have lived up to 50-60 years. Precise data on life span of the average Medium sulphur-crested cockatoo is poorly documented, however most Medium sulphur-cresteds do not live as long as possible. Birds often succumb to disease or injury. Breeding age can be as young as 3 years, however hand-reared birds may not begin breeding before they are 6 to 8 years old. Breeding life span is not precisely known but is possibly up to 30+ years.

Personality 

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are affectionate, playful and highly intelligent birds. They are excellent companion birds for those who want a charming, loving bird that likes to cuddle. Medium sulphurcresteds
tend to be very demanding of attention and if they are deprived of attention can become very noisy and destructive or turn to plucking or selfmutilation behavior. Imprinted cockatoos may become possessive of their owners. This possessive behavior can lead to unpredictable or aggressive behavior towards other people especially as the bird reaches sexual maturity.

While Medium sulphur cresteds will occasionally speak, they are not known for their ability to mimic. They are however very vocal and many birds loose their home due to loud screaming. This behavior is often learned when young birds hear the morning or afternoon screaming of another cockatoo. Mature birds may scream more intensely and loudly (calling for a mate) and screaming is often intensified during the breeding season.

Activities 

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are playful and inquisitive and they love to chew objects in their surroundings. They should always be provided with toys, blocks of wood or branches that they can chew. In order to ensure safety companion cockatoos should not be allowed unsupervised freedom in the home as they often encounter toxins or dangerous items. Young cockatoos should be socialized to many people and exposed to a variety of situations such as new cages, toys, visits to the veterinarian, handling by friends, wing and nail clips, etc. to avoid fear of novel situations.

Dietary Needs 

Cockatoos should be fed a formulated (pelleted or extruded diet) as a basis for good nutrition. Kaytee Exact is an excellent staple diet for cockatoos. The diet should be supplemented with fresh fruits and vegetables daily to add variety and psychological enrichment. Feed approximately 1/3 cup of Kaytee Exact and 1/3 cup of fresh fruits and vegetables daily. If the bird consumes all of it’s food give additional food as desired. Overfeeding leads to pickiness, wastage and throwing food. Treats such as seeds, nuts and table foods maybe given in small amounts especially as rewards for good behavior.

Special Requirements 

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are very efficient in utilization of calories. Juvenile cockatoos are notoriously picky eaters and don’t seem to need much food to maintain themselves. Try to ensure that the food that they do eat is nutritious. Vitamin supplements are not needed for birds that are eating a formulated diet.

Medium Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo

Grooming 

Routine bathing or showering is vital to maintaining good plumage and skin condition. Birds can be misted and allowed to dry in a warm room or in the sun, or gently dried with a blow drier. Care should be taken not to clip the wing feathers excessively as cockatoos often fall and injure themselves. Clip only the primary flight feathers and only enough so the bird will glide to the floor.

Identification 

All companion and breeding birds should be individually identified to assist in recovery if lost and assist in maintenance of medical and genealogical records. Many breeders apply closed legs bands when chicks are young. While they present a slight risk of entrapment closed bands are preferable to no identification, especially for breeding birds. Microchips, which can be implanted into the muscle or under the skin, are a
reliable means of identification but require electronic readers to verify identification. Tattoos may be used but often fade or become illegible with time. Footprints may have some application in identification.

Sexing 

Most of the white cockatoos species can be sexed by eye color when mature. The eyes of a mature female Medium sulphur-crested are red while the eyes of the male are dark brown or black. Juveniles of both sexes
will have brown eyes. The sex of breeders should be confirmed by surgical or DNA sexing.

Housing 

Medium sulphur-crested cockatoos are very active and should be provided the largest cage that space and budget allows. Durable cage construction is very important because Medium sulphur-cresteds are very
strong chewers and can easily break welds on poorly constructed cages. Many are also adept at opening cage latches. Locks or escape proof latches may be necessary on cages. The cage should be as large as possible but must allow at least enough room to fully spread the wings. Ideally the bird will have an outdoor cage as well to allow playtime in the fresh-air and sunlight.

Glossy Black Cockatoo Breeding And Populations Australia

Glossy Black-Cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus Lathami

The glossy black-cockatoo is around 46–50 cm long and is generally smaller than other black-cockatoos. It is a brownish black colour with a small crest. There are some distinct differences in appearance between male
and female birds. The male can be identified by the browner colour on the head and underparts and by bright
red panels in the black tail. The female has a wider tail which is red to reddish-yellow barred with black; yellow markings may also be apparent around the head area.

The glossy black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami) has a patchy distribution in Australia, having once been widespread across most of the south-eastern part of the country. It is now distributed throughout an area which extends from the coast near Eungella in eastern Queensland to Mallacoota in Victoria. An isolated population of glossy black-cockatoos is also known to live on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, (Garnett 1993). The species has become regionally extinct in parts of western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia.

Glossy Black Cockatoo

The current distribution of the glossy black-cockatoo in NSW covers areas from the coast to the tablelands, and as far west as the Riverina and Pilliga Scrub. In the west the glossy black-cockatoo is found in an area from Inverell to Warrumbungle National Park near Coonabarabran and in the hilly areas west to Cobar, including the Hervey Range, in Mount Hope, Hillston and Griffith, including the Lachlan and Cocoparra Range, and south to Narrandera Range, south-west of Ardlethan (Pizzey 1980).

The glossy black-cockatoo lives in coastal woodlands and drier forest areas, open inland woodlands or
timbered watercourses where casuarina, its main foodtrees, are common. It is thought that glossy black-cockatoos prefer to live in rugged country, where extensive clearing has not taken place. Brigalow scrub or hilly rocky country containing casuarina species tend to be the preferred habitat within inland NSW (Ayers et al. 1996).

BREEDING
The glossy black-cockatoo prefers to nest in hollows found in large, old eucalypt trees, alive or dead. The
typical nest tree may have a nest site around 3–30 metres above the ground and the nest hollow is generally
lined with decayed debris. In NSW breeding takes place from March to August, with one egg, white in colour, being produced. In some instances both the male and female parent feed the chick, whilst the female will brood the chick overnight. At other times the male will not feed the young, and the female will brood and feed the young.

It is thought that breeding occurs throughout the glossy black-cockatoo’s range, including Goonoo and Bidden State Forests, the Narrandera Range and Rankin Spring. There is a tendency for glossy black-cockatoos to nest in the same areas as other nesting pairs, sometimes even sharing the same nest tree.

The glossy black-cockatoo generally prefers to feed from the seeds of mature casuarina trees, although they
occasionally eat seeds from eucalypts, angophora, acacias and hakeas, as well as eating insect larvae
(Crome & Shields 1992). In central west NSW they also eat the seeds of cypress pine (Peet, J., personal
communication). In north-eastern NSW the main food source is seeds from the forest oak casuarina (Allocasuarina torulosa) and the black oak casuarina (A. littoralis). In southeastern NSW seeds from black oak casuarina are the favoured food source. Glossy black-cockatoos favour eucalypt-pine-acacia-casuarina woodland in inland NSW.

The drooping she-oak (A. verticillata) and belah (Casuarina cristata/C. pauper) are their favourite feed
trees in this area (Smith et al. 1995). The glossy blackcockatoo has been known to eat the soft, green, unripe
cones of the casuarina and cypress pines but the hard, woody cones are generally left uneaten (Peet, J.,
personal communication). A study undertaken at Eden in NSW indicated that the glossy black-cockatoo is selective in its choice of feed trees, the favoured casuarina producing seeds with a high nutrient value (Crome & Shields 1992). A pair of glossy black-cockatoos may make short visits to various feed trees within a small area, checking the quality of the seeds. Once satisfied, the pair will settle in the one feed tree and harvest all the cones within reach. As such, the presence of a glossy black-cockatoo is often indicated by a layer of cracked cones and fragments that have accumulated under favoured casuarina trees.

Glossy Black Cockatoo

Nest predation by feral cats and possums, as well as competition for nests from galahs and introduced
honeybees, threaten the glossy black-cockatoo. Possums invading nests have been a significant problem for the glossy black-cockatoos on Kangaroo Island, due in part to increased numbers of possums on the island. A possum has been also found in the nest hollow of a glossy black-cockatoo at Narrandera Range (Ayers et al. 1996). The breeding success of the glossy black-cockatoo is considered to be linked to the proximity of food trees and nest trees. Fragmentation of habitat has a detrimental effect on the successful breeding of the bird. Its specific diet can make it vulnerable to changes in the environment. For example, in the Western Australian wheatbelt area, the white-tailed black-cockatoo is now extinct due in part to the increased patchiness of food trees.

Black Cockatoo Conservations and Distribution

The naso Black Cockatoo sub specie has long been a desired acquisition for true black cockatoo enthusiasts.

First time viewers of naso’s, whether they are enthusiasts or keepers of other species are instantly in awe of
what they see before them. Words of medieval, awesome and massive are uttered from ones lips when confronted with a true naso sitting before them on a perch in the aviary. The object of aviculturists awe is
the magnificent large mandibles which take up a large proportion of the frontal head aspect of the naso.
The body size of the naso is smaller in length than most black cockatoo species although what they lack in
length they make up for in a compact, chunky body width.

A unique and playful personality is distinctive to naso’s. Blacks in general will interact with their keeper but naso’s have an endearing quality of getting in ones face with their comical nature and undeniable “I AM” attitude. A true naso is a sight to behold and so unique that identification of such a subspecies of black cockatoos is immediate.

Black Cockatoo

Distribution
The naso is endemic to the south-west Western Australia ranging from Albany, Augusta and south of Perth. Helm’s block near Nannup is renowned for its suitability for sustainable populations of the naso as populations of naso’s currently exist in this area. The range of the naso has been claimed to have reduced by up to 36% over the last decade which can be compared to historical sightings and field studies of yesteryear. It is amazing that in this day and age that the range of such an Australian icon such as a sub-species of “Black Cockatoo” can shrink so dramatically due to human interference. Not only is the naso loosing habitat but that loss of habitat is severely crippling the existing population statistics.

Status
Years of research, talking and promises should have secured the status of the naso for future generations to come to appreciate the forest red-tail in their wild habitat. The naso redtail is listed as near threatened under the Federal Government Department of Environment and Water Resources. This list was studied and classified for the Federal Government was completed in 2000 and now seven years later we are reminded
how very fragile the population is by the threat and destruction of the prime ecology of one parcel of land such as Helm’s Block. I now refer to the last issue of the PSOA magazine (July-August 2007, pg28) where it has become apparent that the Western Australian Government’s Department of Environment and conservation have decided to lift an old growth logging moratorium on Helm’s Block.

Helm’s Block seems to be the lynch pin of the survival of the Forest redtail AKA the naso. Helm’s Block has everything required to sustain the survival and future generations of the naso. While on the search for some sort of understanding as to the ludicrous actions of the Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation I stumbled across more damning information in regards to another block known as Buttler Block.

Black Cockatoo

Buttler Block has previously been logged and burnt and I believe it is now to be reclassified as National Park.
I personally am amazed at the train of thought that the Western Australian Government is traveling down when
they can conscionably destroy nesting sites, burn out future food sources and expect that by declaring a raped
ex logging tract of land that is now desolate, as suitable habitat for a threatened species, to be some sort of
compromise is beyond belief.

Mother Nature has also dealt a saddening blow to the plight of the Black Cockatoo in these areas that are
being desolated by logging practices. Because of logging and the lack of suitable nesting sites naso’s are now
being forced to use smaller nesting hollows that ordinarily would be used by the white cockatoo family or smaller birds such as 28 parrots. This change of nesting habits is seeing the naso come into contact with PBFD which ordinarily has not been recorded in wild Black Cockatoos. Today there are increasing
cases of young Black Cockatoos being brought into care due to the fact that they are fledging from these smaller unsuitable nesting sites that have been infected with PBFD and unfortunately there is no cure for these young threatened naso babies.

My personal view on the plight and status of the naso and other Black Cockatoos in this area would have
to be that of grave disbelief as I don’t feel that there are enough efforts being made by the Western Australian
Government to safe guard the needed habitat of these magnificent birds.

Housing
Black Cockatoos in general are easily pleased when it comes to suitable housing. Suspended cages can be as minimal as 1.2mtrs W x 1.2mtrs H x 3mtrs L. Smaller suspendeds have the advantage of ensuring your pair has their own intimate area for breeding and this allows the pair to feel secure that they can protect and nurture their microenvironment, their own little domain. Larger suspendeds offer greater flying area which in turn equates to more exercise and better health and longevity.

My ideal sized suspended for housing Black Cockatoos would be 2mtrs W x 2mtrs H x 5mtrs L. In this larger sized suspended or even in a larger flight remember that blacks are secretive and need the privacy and protection of their own domain. The need for privacy can be dealt with by blocking one end of the suspended or conventional aviary off with a solid barrier such as colourbond etc... which will stop drafts, darken the surrounding area and create the right subdued environment for you to fit a nesting log or galvanized garbage bin in the suspended or conventional aviary for the birds to breed.